Exploring General Types of Research Design and Approaches Essay

Exploring General Types of Research Design and Approaches - Essay Example Hence, the concern for Corporate Social Responsibility (CSR) is rising. Businesses are concentrating towards the progress of a sense of CSR as well as focusing on their basic values to promote their products and sustain their consumers (Enquist, Johnson and Skalen, 2005). Despite the extensive development of the CSR concept, there is an ongoing debate since long that the basic goal of a business is to maximize the profit for its stakeholders while the promotion of CSR increases stockholder’s investment (Friedman, 1962). Nevertheless, numerous past studies have established that CSR really augments the businesses’ financial performance in the long run. The topic has a lot of scope of research and development since the association between the CSR and the firm’s financial performance has been very controversial and had been argued by many scholars, for instance Pava and Krausz (1996) related CSR to company’s performance while Ullmann (1985) does not relate the se two together. Since any of the company’s actions some how or the other influences its performance thus it can be said that the performance of a company does depend over its CSR actions. Primary Research Question The primary research question formulated for the above mentioned research problem is: How does the financial performance of a business relates to it CSR activities? Secondary Research Question In order to investigate the above mentioned primary research question, I have formulated the following secondary research questions that will be helpful for a quantitative investigation of the study. How CSR activities of a business influence the perceptions of its customers for its brand? How the identified customer perceptions influence the business’s performance? Methodology I intend to use a quantitative research method, which basically focuses on the facts and practicalities of the subject under consideration. The basic objective of selecting this design approach is the nature of this study that leads towards the evaluation or quantification of the company’s performance on the basis of its customers’ perceptions about the brand that is, in turn, influenced by its CSR activities. It is necessary to acquire the on-ground knowledge of businesses’ performances and their strategies so as to determine the impact of Corporate Social Responsibility over the financial performance of a business. Keeping in view the objective of the study, I thought it to be the best to acquire the data related to the CSR and the turn-over of various businesses and then assess the collected information to reach to the conclusion of the study. The post-positivistic principle is the philosophical research approach that underpins this investigation. The post-positivistic research philosophy will help us to find out the Do s and Don’ts of a business. This approach is dependent over different philosophies such like social contract theory, virtue ethics, post modernism and Habermasian critical theory. I intend to adopt the post positivistic philosophical design in this study since it will provide the contextual dimension of reality to the investigation that will lead us to challenge and re-invent scientific theories through empirical research. I will

Sources of Finance Essay Example for Free

Sources of Finance Essay In this assignment, I am going to look at different ways to finance a new start-up business and also for existing businesses who want to expand in the future. After reading this, you will learn the costs of different sources of finance and also their advantages and disadvantages. A source of finance is divided into two sections which are short term and long term. Short term is often referred to money that is borrowed for up to 12 months. Many businesses would use this to fund day to day activities such as utility bills or staff wages etc. Long term is generally over one year and used for things such as buying property or expanding a business. In this assignment it is going to look at how existing businesses and new businesses will use these types of borrowing as a source of finance. Long term finance Owner’s capital refers to the amount of money the owner puts into the business themselves. This is regarded as long term finance as the money will stay with the business as long as it exists. This could be savings, money received in result of a redundancy payment or money left to them in a will. The advantage of this source is that it doesn’t have any interest because it’s the owner’s money so you don’t need to pay anyone back unlike bank loans. In comparison to loans, this is generally more convenient because you don’t need to worry about paying back the bank and the interest rates. This source is more flexible than others because there is no restriction on the money so the owner can spend it on whatever they like. However, the disadvantage of this would be if the business fails then you are likely to lose your investment. It also comes with an opportunity cost. This is defined as what you could have done with the money; for example, you were going to use it to buy a house but you contribute it to starting up a business, this is the opportunity cost. If businesses do not contribute the owner’s capital then it is unlikely they will receive any loans from banks or other investors. This is because if you were an investor and you saw a business that isn’t willing to take the risk and contribute their own money, you wouldn’t invest your own money in them. Depending on how much the owner’s capital is going to be, this can be mixed with bank loans to go towards a business start-up. For example, I am going to open a Chinese take-away and invest  £10,000 into the business but my priority is to buy  utensils and refurbish the building. I could use my investment into refurbishing and since I contribute my own money I could get a loan from the bank to buy my utensils. This source of finance is suitable for new businesses to get them up and running however it can also be used for existing businesses who want to expand. Venture capital is the money that is provided to businesses by investors. These investors are named venture capitalists who could either be a group of wealthy individuals or a company who make their money by investing on businesses. They are often seeking for new or growing businesses who they believe have potential and hope to develop them. There are some advantages for this source; it is a good option to new businesses especially for the ones who don’t have much operating history so it’s harder for them to secure a bank loan. The money the venture capitalists contribute is usually more than what banks are willing to lend. Businesses are also interested in but the contacts these wealthy people have which could help their business expand in many different ways. For example, in Dragons Den, Peter Jones offers  £50 000 to a business for 50% of the company which is 25% more than what the business was prepared to give away however with Peter being a wealthy and respectable entrepreneur they gave him what he wanted. They believe Peter has the contacts which could help their business expand rapidly. If a business could secure a venture capital, it is more beneficial than a bank loan because there are no interest rates however the disadvantage is you risk losing some independency to the investors. They calculate how much money they are willing to invest and the percentage by considering the risk and reward. Usually, a new business is considered high risk because they have limited operating history but if they are believed to have potential then the investors will ask for a high percentage of the business for it to achieve a high profitable reward. It is likely the venture capitalists will make decisions for the company. If businesses are willing to sacrifice part of their business then this source is recommended because it could broaden the company. Bank loans are regarded as long term finance because the money can be borrowed up to 25 years or longer in some circumstances. All loans have an  interest rate attached to them. The interest rate is often calculated by how much the business borrows. The more you borrow the more interest you are going to pay. For example, if I borrow  £9000 from Barclays bank, I will be charged 4.3% APR whereas if I borrow  £30000 I will be charged at 6.9% APR. It could affect your loan if the interest rates go up so more businesses take out a loan on a fixed rate of interest where they won’t be charge any extra costs if the interest rates increase. If a variable rate loan is taking out, the interest rates can change which makes it harder to manage finance. Bank loans could be used by new and existing businesses; a new business can use it to buy equipment and an existing business could use it to expand the company for example, buying new premises. An existing business will tend to be able to borrow more than a new business. This is because they have been operating for longer and banks generally find them more reputable. If these companies wish to borrow an excessive sum of money then extra security is needed to ensure the money is paid back. Often banks will ask the business to use their property as a security for the loan. It means if the business fails then the bank could recover the money from selling their property. This is usually referred as a second mortgage. Most businesses use this source to their advantage because it is convenient and the money could be borrowed for a lengthy period. For some businesses, it could be looked at as a better option than securing a venture capital because you aren’t losing a share of the business for money but you also have decision on where the money could be spend; you have more independency with the money. The disadvantage is the interest rate could be quite high whereas if an owner’s capital was available, a repayment is not necessary. Also, if your business fails and you have taken out a second mortgage you could lose your property. Generally, bank loans work out quite expensive in the long run however it is a good way to raise finance for your business. A mortgage is a loan used for purchasing a property and could be paid back in the space of 25 years or sometimes more. The property then becomes the borrower’s collateral which needs to be paid off as they agreed with the lenders. If there is a failure of payment then the lenders can repossess the property and sell it at an auction to recover the money. This source is common for both new and existing businesses that need a mortgage for their  work premises. The advantage of mortgages is the fact they are usually more manageable and affordable than renting because the repayments are spread out over a lengthy period. This also depends on the type of the property and other factors such as location and price. Here is an example, in 2008, house prices dropped in Northern Ireland; therefore buying a house was cheaper. In addition, getting a mortgage was easier and cheaper than renting. Also, once you have paid off your mortgage, you own the property and it could be worth far more than what you paid for it. Often, interest rates on mortgages are lower than a loan because the property is used as collateral. Mortgages fall into two main categories; fixed rate and various rates. Fixed rate is where the interest stays the same over a number of years and various rate means the interest can change. This source also comes with many disadvantages; it is not as flexible as renting because if you want to move out of the property, it is not as easy as cancelling a contract with your landlord, you will have to sell the property which can be difficult. Maintenance is one of the problems for instance, if the roof leaks you will have to fix it yourself whereas a rented property it can be repaired for you. The main disadvantage is that you have to keep up with your repayments or you can end up losing your property. For example, during the credit crunch there was many people made redundant and therefore they struggled to make repayments so their house was repossessed. Although the interest rate is lower on mortgages, it does carry high risk as you are repaying over a long period of time. For a new business it would be advisable to start off with a bank loan to establish a steady flow of finance into a business before considering a mortgage. Retained profits are defined as capital which is kept in the business. The owner(s) can decide what they want to do with the companies’ profits. This could be for personal use, paid out to shareholders as a dividend or withdrawn as wages for sole trader’s also known as owner’s drawings. If the owner decides not to touch this money it is referred to as ploughing back the profits or organic growth. This is regarded as important long term finance but only relates to existing businesses. There are many advantages of retained profits; the money which is left in the business rather than paid out as a dividend is the opportunity cost for shareholders. The money  is reinvested and helps the company expand and could be used for buying new equipment or machinery. It is an advantageous source of finance because it doesn’t have any interest rates attached. It also has a lot of flexibility because the company has control of what is left in the business and what is paid out to dividends. This source of finance has some disadvantages. It could lead to the company getting criticized for restricting the value of dividends and holding on too much money for the business. If retained profits don’t result in higher profit then it could cause arguments amongst shareholders and you risk losing them. The shareholders may think the money would be better in their own hands rather than the business. In order to use this source accordingly, you must maintain good relationships with the shareholders and show that the business has potential to succeed. This is highly recommended for existing businesses because as long as the company exist while making profits, money will be reinvested each day and it could help with the growth of the business. Selling assets is a common source of long term finance for an existing business. An asset is categorized as any item owned by a business or individual which could range from land to machinery. Business may sell some assets because they have no further need for them. By selling assets the company can raise money to fund other projects. For example; selling a JCB digger because there is limited work on in the construction site and it is taking up too much valuable space. These assets can turn into cash which could help the business with advertising or paying off debts. Often businesses sell a successful division of their business to another firm because they believe there is a declining market for their product or service. While it is still going good they will sell this in order to use the money to expand in a new and growing market. The advantage of selling an asset is you get your money back straight away. Generally, this is a cheaper source of financing your business unlike bank loans where you have to worry about the high interest rates. For many, selling an asset is a good way to reduce or eliminate debt. Although, this seems like a convenient method, the cost of selling assets must be considered. In some cases, you won’t receive full market value for the goods but this depends on how quick you want to sell them. The assets could grow in value faster than what you can yield  with the cash and also it could come with tax consequences. This means if you buy an asset and later sell it on for profit, you could be landed with what is called ‘Capital Gains Tax’. You could end up with less money than you expected. This financing source mostly applies to existing businesses because they would have built more assets than new businesses starting up and would most likely have more debt on their hands. For new businesses, getting a bank loan or owner’s capital would be more suitable. Overall; this is a recommended source of finance for existing businesses as it carries little risk in the procedure. This benefits a lot of businesses because they are usually selling something they no longer require, in order to use the money on something which can help their company grow or eliminate debt. For example, you are investing on a delivering service for your company and plan to get a loan for a van. Your warehouse has several forklifts so you would plan to sell one in order to buy a van. To conclude, you aren’t losing money because you are using the money from the asset to start a new service; to expand your business. Share capital is the capital of a company divided into equal amounts known as shares. There are two companies’ which share capital relate to which are private limited companies, (LTD’s) or public limited companies (PLC’s). In a private limited company, these shares are often sold to family firms but could be sold to family and friends. However, if they want to issue shares, they must go through an agreement with all the shareholders. On the other hand, a public limited company can sell shares on a stock exchange to members of the public. This means anyone could buy shares which results in them having a wider source of capital. A new business is usually classed as a private limited company and may have as little as two shareholders. However, if they expand over time and cannot issue any more shares they might consider about becoming a public limited company. This process is known as ‘floating the business’ which has to go through a number of administr ative and legal procedures. A public limited company can raise more because they can sell their shares on the stock exchange. If they want to expand their business but need  £100 million then they can sell  £100 million shares at the stock exchange for  £1 each. This needs to come with a prospectus which is very important because it gives the investors a better  understanding of the company before they commit to buying shares. You will tend to find information such as; how the business is managed, what does the business specialist in, etc. Businesses often use the services of a merchant bank such as Morgan Stanley or Merrill Lynch who specialize in share floatation. This means if all shares are not sold, they will buy them so the business can still raise the money they need. This is a type of insurance policy and you can imagine the cost it has attached to it. Share capital is attractive and very helpful in raising long term finance for both new and existing businesses. The main advantages are; you will have commitment from your shareholders because like the owner they also want to see the business succeed. In terms where a plc becomes successful then they will most likely sell more shares to the public. However, if there comes a time when they want to raise more money, they can issue cheaper shares to existing shareholders through a rights issue’. If the company is doing well, and needs money for expansion, this is a quick and cheap way of raising finance. In comparison to loans, this source is cheaper; all you have to do is pay the shareholders their dividends each year instead of repaying high interest on bank loans. This financing source is similar to venture capital; if you have the right business angels and venture capitalist, they can bring useful contacts, valuable skills and experience to your company. This could help with business strategy planning, new products ideas or expansion plans. Although, there are some disadvantages too. Depending on the investor, you may lose some independency of the decision making in your business. For a potential investor to want a share of your business they will want to see reports and forecasts of the company; you may have to provide information for the investor(s) to monitor. This can be time consuming and may take management focus away from core business activities. Overall, share capital is a secure way to raise finance for your company. The money which is invested will stay within the company as long as the company exists and if it is a growing company then it could get a good reputation selling shares through the stock exchange. Short term finance A Bank overdraft is when someone makes an agreement with the bank to spend  more than what they have in their account but the money will need to be paid back. This type of borrowing is common for both new and existing businesses that experience cash flow problems. The money a business receives from sales and the amount they spend is called cash flow. There are two types of overdrafts; authorized and unauthorized. An authorized overdraft is where you are allowed to borrow up to a limit agreed with the bank. An unauthorized overdraft is where you are exceeding your authorized overdraft limit or going below zero in your account without agreeing on an overdraft facility; this should be avoided at all costs. This source of finance does carry an interest rate but only for the amount overdrawn and the length of time overdrawn. For example, if an overdraft facility allows you to borrow up to  £5000; you need  £3000 on the 1st July to pay rent until you get a payment of  £4000 from a customer on the 4th July, you will only be charged interest rates on the  £3000 for 4 days you borrowed. Some banks will charge a fee for customers to use this facility. A bank overdraft is suitable for companies that need the money for a short period of time whether it’s for paying staff wages or utility bills. Although, they must ensure they have money coming in to cover the cost of the overdraft as it can carry high interest rates; usually higher than bank loans. It can help avoid cheques bouncing and returned direct debit. This is where there are insufficient funds in the account to make a payment. If this happens, the business will have to pay bank charges and it can also damage relationships with suppliers as they will see the business as untrustworthy and they may not want to supply them with any more stock. The main advantage of a bank overdraft is the fact that is there when you need it and doesn’t cost anything (except for a small fee). You only need to borrow what you need. It can also help maintain the cash flow within the company and allows the business to make essential payments while chasing their own payments. There are many disadvantages too, as mentioned before overdrafts can carry higher interest rates than bank loans which make them expensive for long term financing. In some cases, you may have to secure your business assets to get an overdraft and failing to make repayments can risk you losing your assets. The main disadvantage and probably most important one is, if you find yourself going over the overdraft limit it would be classed as an unauthorized overdraft where you will be charged high interest rates and bank charges. If the  business keeps using over their limit, it could damage their reputation with banks although they can get the limit raised but this is not advisable. If this is done repeatedly the banks will assume the business has financial issues and they can refuse further use of the overdraft service. This source of finance is useful if lending short term but a business should never rely on it. Trade credit is the time given to a business from the supplier to pay for their stock. It is used in business to business (B2B) transactions. Trade credit is usually 30 days although this can be different depending on the organization. If you agreed 30 days credit with your supplier, you can sell the stock and have the money in your bank account before you pay the supplier. This means you are getting an interest free loan for 30 days. Usually small suppliers prefer to sell their products only to one big company instead of many small companies; this makes payments more manageable. An example is Cravendale farm only sells their milk to Asda so they will get one invoice from them at the end of the credit period. This is better than having multiple invoices from different supermarkets which can make cash flow more difficult. However, big companies like Asda often use this to their advantage and pay the supplier back late. They usually get away with this because Cravendale farm know Asda are their only customers so they cannot afford to lose them. Trade credit is a very important source of finance and has many advantages. It does not carry any interest rates therefore it is better than using bank overdraft. It can save you from spending money in your account to buy stock and with that money you can use it elsewhere in the business. For new businesses it may be hard to get trade credit because they have limited operating history but if they shop around they might find a supplier that will offer them a small credit limit to begin with. If they can make payments on time and prove to the suppliers they are reliable then it is possible the credit limit will increase. However the downfall of this source is, if you do not pay the supplier back on time you will get a bad reputation in the industry. If you constantly make late payments then the suppliers can withdraw this facility and ask for cash payments. It will also be hard for you to get new suppliers because they may be aware of your reputation of late payments; this should be  avoided at all costs. Trade credit is a good source of finance being interest free and it can help you build good credit history. This will be useful for getting bank loans or using the overdraft facility. Business credit cards are useful for short term borrowing. It is similar to using trade credit. If you pay for goods with a credit card, you will receive a statement once a month with the amounts spent in the last month. You will be given a time to pay for what you spent. If the amount is paid off in full you won’t have to pay any interest charges. Although, you do have the alternative of paying a minimum amount in which case you will have to pay interest on the remaining amount owed. This source of finance is recommended for new businesses as it gives them time to receive money from sales before they have to pay their expenses. It is also a good option for existing businesses but new businesses will tend to use it more to their advantage because it helps to maintain their cash flow and makes it easier for them to get started. An example of this source is if I have just opened a Chinese take away then I can use my business credit card to buy stock. Once I have sold all my stock and I can pay the amount in full then I will get an interest free loan. Business credit cards have some advantages. It helps track purchases because you will get a statement each month which shows what the business has spent money on. You can get interest free credit if you pay the balance by the due date. With a business credit card being so convenient it does have its disadvantages. The card can be fixed with high interest rates and if you make late payments or failure to make a payments it can resolve in the interest rate to rise. This can have a significant impact on the companies’ credit history and rating. This source is very useful although you should avoid making late payments because if you constantly have debt on the credit card, it can cost the business more money by paying interest rates. You will have to clear all debt before you can take advantage of the interest free credit again. You should always make payments on time to take advantage of this source. Failure to make payments can cause the business to get bad credit which means it will be harder to use other borrowing facilities in the future such as bank loans and it can harm the businesses’ reputation. A business should take full advantage of trade credit and credit cards for short term financing. They are both very similar and suitable for new and existing businesses. However, I recommend using trade credit over credit cards because repayments are more flexible to a supplier than to a bank. I mean if you pay your credit card bills late you will be charged with interest but some suppliers are flexible with their payment and they can possibly excuse a late payment. Although, you should always try to make payments on time to avoid damaging company reputation and having bad credit history. Retained profits are considered to be a cheaper source of finance than bank loans and mortgages. It is the best option available to help an existing company expand because it doesn’t carry any interest rates which means more capital for the business. If the business fails after taking out a bank loan and they can’t repay the loan, they can destroy their credit rating, making it difficult or impossible to get loans in the future. If retained profits are used and the business fails then it is just the companies’ investment that will be lost. For a new business, venture capital is considered to be the best source of long term finance. It is not only the investor’s money that is important but their skills and experience is crucial and could be the difference between a successful business and an unsuccessful one. If you are planning to start up your own business you need an owner’s capital in order to secure a bank loan. Once the business starts operating it will be able to secure higher loans and take advantage of the retained profits. The retained profits can help the company expand without carrying any interest rates meaning more capital for the business. Trade credit comes in when the business is set up and you want to start selling products. You should shop around and find a good supplier that will offer you this source and if it’s used appropriately you will find it very convenient. These sources should help you succeed in your business. Investopedia. (2014) Opportunity Cost. Available at: http://www.investopedia.com/terms/o/opportunitycost.asp Barclays. (2014) Your Loan Options. Available at: http://www.barclays.co.uk/Loans/P1242557963420 Money Supermarket. (2014) Advantages and disadvantages of mortgages. Available at: http://www.moneysupermarket.com/mortgages/advantages-and-disadvantages/ Gov.uk. (2014) Business finance explained. Loans. Available at: https://www.gov.uk/business-finance-explained/loans Tutor2u. (2012) Source of Finance – Retained Profits. Available at: http://tutor2u.net/business/finance/retained_profit.html eHow. (2014) Advantages and disadvantages of sale of assets. Available at: http://www.ehow.co.uk/info_8615419_advantages-disadvantages-sale-assets.html Tutor2u. (2012) What is share capital? Available at: http://www.tutor2u.net/blog/index.php/business-studies/comments/qa-what-is-share-capital NI Business Info. (2014) Advantages and disadvantages of equity finance. Available at: https://www.nibusinessinfo.co.uk/content/advantages-and-disadvantages-equity-finance Wikipedia. (2014) Trade Credit. Available at: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Trade_credit Biz Help 24. (2014) Overdraft finance Advantages and disadvantages . Available at: http://www.bizhelp24.com/money/business-finance/overdraft-finance-advantages-and-disadvantages.html Gov.uk (2014) Business finance explained. Overdrafts. Available at: https://www.gov.uk/business-finance-explained/overdrafts Money Supermarket. (2014) Advantages and disadvantages of credit cards. Available at: http://www.moneysupermarket.com/credit-cards/advantages-and-disadvantages/ Go Compare. (2014) Beginners guide to credit cards. Available at: http://www.gocompare.com/credit-cards/credit-cards-explained/

Nan Goldins Representation Of Gender And Sexuality

Nan Goldins Representation Of Gender And Sexuality In this essay I will be looking at how Nan Goldin photographs people and represents their sexuality and gender through her work as it has always been a heavy factor in her work. What does it say about the subject matter she is trying to represent? I will look at other photographers that represent sexuality and gender a lot in their work and compare how different photographers work in different ways. I will also look at how this work of hers has possibly influenced other photographers and their work. I will look at the background of Nan Goldin and her family upbringing to see if it has influenced the way she works and if her surroundings at the time of making her work gave her a strong need to want to represent this subculture she was emerged in. I would also like to give my opinion on if the representation she has given of these men and women seems accurate and if she has portrayed them in a certain way, what is she trying to say about these people? Other photographers I would like to look at in this essay include Larry Clark whos most common subject was the photography of youth and their engagement of underage sex and violence and were all part of a subculture, somewhat like the photography of Goldins prostitutes and drag queens. I will look at all of Goldins work and see how she has progressed through her work and if anything has changed since she started for example her view on sexuality and how people represent themselves to others. Books I will be looking at will include The Ballad of Sexual Dependency which is a visual diary of her life in New York. Il be you Mirror is another book I will be heavily focusing on during my research as it covered two decades of her life, this is a book in which some of her most influential work is gathered, therefore an obvious choice when looking at her photography. Her work has heavily touched on subjects filled with sexual gender identification such as drag queens and I will look at each project she has encountered and how she has chosen to deal with the transformation of the self and courage. Goldin looks heavily in her work at the external behaviour of people and their relationships and I would like to analyse this as it may be related to how she would like to deal with her own issues and if this representation is a reflection about how she feels about the same issues. Goldin photographs real life and records what she sees, she gives a straight forward document of sexuality- but can it sometimes be too much? She documents their personal space and joys and sorrows of contemporary life and looks at sexuality as an addiction. I will research how she has photographed the significance of the female figure and why she does so. Does Goldin pave a new way for photographers in how they represent sub cultures and women? Biography of Nan Goldin Nan Goldin was born in Washington DC in 1953 in an upper middle class Jewish family. Shortly after, she and her family moved to Boston, where Goldin spent a few unhappy years before moving away from her family. In 1965, when Goldin was 14 years old, her older sister, Barbara Goldin, committed suicide. extremely troubled by this event, Goldin sought after relievement in her friends and in a way created an alternate family. She soon decided that tradition family values and life were not for her, then Goldin moved in with a series of foster families, and soon enrolled in a school called Satya Community School. Here she met two friends- David Armstrong and Suzanne Fletcher. As the memory of her sister started to become disappear, Goldin started photograph to preserve the her memory. She photographed her associates so she would never misplace the memory of them, as had happened with her sister. Her photographs were her way of documenting their lives, and, in turn, her own. When she began photographing, Goldin started to experiment cross-dressing and drag; this early experimentation would shape Goldins lifelong fascination with the blurry line separating the gender and sexuality. Through Armstrong, Goldin was introduced to the drag subculture in Boston. There, she photographed drag queen beauty contests during the early 1970s and became friends with many transvestites. Her documentation of these people was reality as she seen it, showing them in a straightforward way, being part of their everyday lives. Goldin then moved to the Boston School of Fine Arts, and therefore changed her photographic style slightly. Before she began at the college she would mainly use black and white film, however within college started to experiment with colour and started to introduce flash. She gradually developed her own style of photography, with subtle flash and bright vibrant colours. When she graduated from college in 1978 she moved to New York City and began photographing American subcultures such as the gay scene in the late 70s and early 80s. This was a major life change for Goldin with a heavy exposure to drugs and abusive relationships. The Ballad of sexual dependency was created between 1979 and 1986 which documents a drug culture and relationships of which by this time were commonplace in Goldins circle of friends. Goldin wrote, I believe one should create from what one knows and speak about ones tribe . . .You can only speak with true understanding and empathy about what youve experienced. Most of the people she documented during this time were dead by the 1990s. In addition to this book she created two other books including Ill be your Mirror and All by Myself.   The main themes of her early work include gender and sexuality.   She documented everything from parties to her relationships like a personal diary for all to see. By 1988 Goldins lifestyle of drugs and alcohol started to take a toll on her life, and entered a clinic to deal with her problems. Throughout this time she experimented a lot with self portraiture and documented her progress in the clinic. Throughout this time in the clinic she was also struggling with some outside issues including having to deal with the death   of many of her close friends that she has photographed over the years. Most of them were dying of aids, one of the most important being Cookie Mueller, a friend since 1976. The Cookie Portfolio was a small document of her life over 15 portraits that Goldin created perhaps as a tribute to her friend. Goldin then decided to document many of her friends with AIDs that seem to be dramatically disappearing. Somewhat he same as what she had done when her memory of her sister started to disappear. In 1994, she and her friend David Armstrong created a book called  A Double Life. Composed of photographs taken by both Goldin and A rmstrong, the book displays their differing styles of photographing the same person.

Red Dwarf :: essays research papers

Red Dwarf, by Rob Grant & Doug Naylor Red dwarf was written in collaboration by Rob Grant and Doug Naylor. However on the cover of the book the author is called Grant Naylor and is referred to as a â€Å"Gestalt entity† giving the reader a clue as to what style the book is going to take. The BBC television series of the same name is based on this book but the events of the book and series are quite different and in my opinion the book is superior. The central character of this book is Dave Lister and it focuses on his journey through space which brings him farther and farther from the planet of his birth. The other characters in the book are Arnold Rimmer (the hologram of a third grade technician who was killed by a nuclear explosion, which had the power of a neutron bomb); Holly (a computer that once had an IQ of 6000 but went computer senile due to 3 million years alone in deep space;) and Cat (a humanoid whose race evolved from a cat which was protected from the radiation, in the ship’s hold). The first stage of Lister’s journey began on his 25 birthday. He decided to take a monopoly board pub crawl around London. When he woke up with a huge hangover he was on Mimas (one of Saturn’s moons) with no money wearing a lady’s hat and a pair of yellow fishing waders and a passport/work permit made out in the name of Emily Berkenstein. Since he had no work permit he could not earn enough money to buy his way off the moon and so the only way he could think of to get home was to join the Space Corps on the mining ship Red Dwarf. His plan was to work his way round the solar system until he reached Earth, then he would go AWOL. However this plan was altered when something drastic befell him, he fell in love. For five weeks the boring monotony of ship life was bearable but then Kristine Kochanski broke it off with him. This made life on ship unbearable and so he formulated a plan by which he could get to Earth sooner (at least from his perspective). He bought a cat on one of his shore leave holidays and then took pictures of himself and the cat to be developed to make sure he was caught.

Worst Day Of Life

The worst day of my life was when I lost my thumb it was very painful I was emotionally scared and I cant play video games like normal people. I lost my thumb when I was only a few years old and it hurt a lot. It got taken off in a bike chain. Thats how I lost my thumb. Im not able to play video games like normal people play. My thumb is always sliding off the buttons. It always hard to keep up when playing video games with my friends. Its really annoying to play. Im not as accurate when playing games. I always die a lot in the games I play. Also I lose a lot when Im playing two player games. I cant move my thumb as fast as normal people. I end up in last often in games. I get problems holding things. That is what disadvantages I have when playing video games. When I lost my thumb it was very painful. My thumb was ripped off painfully in a bike chain. I think I should have sued the people that made the stupid bike. When it fell off it was just sitting there and that was bad. When it got cut off it was gushing lots of blood. There was blood every where. When this happened the carpet was soaked in blood it was weird. Then they took me to the hospital and they stitched it up because they couldnt put it back on because it was cut into small pieces. They had to but a cast on to. It was different when they took it off because I didnt have a thumb and that was different. Thats what were some painful things about my thumb being ripped off. It emotionally sacred me for life. I was never the same. I couldnt hold a cup that easy. It made it hard to write. Ive always and forever be a freak. People call me a freak. Its really funny looking. Ill never be like the normal people. They laugh at my missing thumb. I cant always join into normal activities of normal people. Thats why I sacred for life forever. Thats why the worst day of my life was when I lost my thumb. It was bad because that was my most painful experience I have ever had. It sacred me emotionally forever. I can never be the same.

Identifying Community Resources for Mental Health Essay

Firstly regarding my client that has agreed to substance abuse treatment for 30 days I discovered through research that the following programs would be recommended: The Orchard Recovery and Addiction Treatment Center located at 811 Grafton Road, Bowen Island, BC V0N 1G2 and available at http://www.orchardrecovery.com/. Provides â€Å"Detox, Primary Care (10-, 28- and 42-day residential treatment), Sober Living (three to 12 months of second-stage residential treatment) and ongoing Alumni Services and Aftercare programs† for men and women suffering from addicition. Also another available treatment option is LDR Holistic Addiction Wellness Centre located at 5724 Glover Rd, Langley, BC V3A 4H8and available at http://www.holisticdrugrehab.org/provides drug rehab for men only centers and rehab treatment for women only. After treatment the recommendation would be follow u support groups such as AA. This resource is funded by Alcoholics Anonymous by The Greater Vancouver Intergroup Society located at 3457 Kingsway Vancouver, B.C., V5R 5L5 and meeting times are located at on the internet at http://www.vancouveraa.ca/index.php?option=com_meetings&Itemid=37&task=show. Either treatment facility and aftercare with AA would be a good treatment option because it address’s the clients need for substance abuse treatment and is paid for by Canadian health insurance, so there is minimal out of pocket cost to the client. It is essential to have aftercare to be successful which is why AA is appropriate. Regarding my client’s mother that was recently diagnosed with terminal cancer. The following hospice programs would be recommended: Victoria Hospice Society located at 1952 Bay Street, Victoria, BC V8R 1J8 and reachable at http://www.victoriahospice.org/welcome-victoria-hospice. Care is offered in patients’ homes, within their 17-bed in-patient unit, and as specific medic al consultation to patients in other health care facilities. Clientele includes people that are living with a progressive, life-threatening illness. They must live in an area of Greater Victoria served by Victoria Hospice. They must have a family physician and the physician agrees with registration. Their goal of care is palliative and comfort-oriented, rather than curative treatments. They reside in their own home or in an Assisted Living facility once accepted into the program. Another hospice program is at Laurel Place located at 9688 137A St, Surrey, BC V3T 4H9 http://www.surreyhospice.com/counselling/hospice-palliative-care. They offer Hospice palliative care for anyone facing a life-threatening illness and they provide physical, emotional, and spiritual care and support for individuals and their loved ones at home, in hospitals, in nursing homes or in special hospice facilities. Regarding my client who disclosed in counseling that she was a victim of childhood sexual abuse. I would recommend Adult Survivors of Childhood Sexual Abuse located at 2420 Mary Hill Road, Port Coquitlam, B.C., and V3C. They provide support and therapy with trained facilitators for women who have experienced sexual abuse as children. This is appropriate for my client to be involved in group therapy to begin her process of recovery while feeling connected and supported by a group of other survivors. | Resources: Surrey Hospice Resource Center. (2012). Hospice and Palliative Care. Retrieved from http://www.surreyhospice.com/counselling/hospice-palliative-care Victoria Hospice. (2012). Patients and Families. Retrieved from http://www.victoriahospice.org/welcome-victoria-hospice The Greater Vancouver Intergroup Society. (2012). Retrieved from http://www.vancouveraa.ca/index.php?option=com_meetings&Itemid=37&task=show LDR Holistic Addiction Wellness Centre. (2012). Drug Rehabilitation Canada. Retrieved from http://www.holisticdrugrehab.org/

A Comparison of George Bush and John Kerry in Regards to the Economy essays

A Comparison of George Bush and John Kerry in Regards to the Economy essays Looking at the opinions and attitudes of both George Bush and John Kerry has special importance in this election year. While John Kerry is not officially the Democratic nominee for President, he has obtained enough delegates to get the nomination, and it is very unlikely that the Democratic Party will choose someone else. While it is not impossible, there are no other candidates that have the charisma and character that Democrats see in John Kerry and his beliefs for this country. George Bush has a strong desire to be re-elected and so much has happened during his term in office that many people either love him or hate him, but few are undecided. This makes for what many think will be a very close election in November and it is important to examine the issues to determine where Bush and Kerry really stand on the things that matter most to Americans. For purposes of this paper, the economy will be the focus. It would have been possible to focus on the economy and two other issues, but the American economy is such a large issue that dealing with it could take up many pages. In order to do it justice, the entire paper must be devoted to the economy, but it will be broken down into three sections: taxes, jobs, and trade. These three subissues are some of the largest concerns facing the American people today. Due to this, there are worries all across the country about whether taxes will be raised in the coming year, when the job market will pick up, and what kinds of trade agreements we will have with other countries now that there have been some problems with other nations Because of all of these concerns, the economy is a valid and viable issue worthy of discussion and thought. The ideas had by both George Bush and John Kerry will work to shape the results of the election, and the winner of that election will work to shape history. The economic issues discusse...

Kennedy Assasination essays

Kennedy Assasination essays There is much evidence supporting the innocence of Lee Harvey Oswald involving the assassination of President John F. Kennedy. When one of the most beloved Presidents in United States history was assassinated, Americans were quick to point fingers. Within forty-five minutes of Kennedys assassination, Lee Harvey Oswald was arrested and within hours, he was charged with the murder of President Kennedy. According to the Warren Commission, the group that investigated Kennedys assassination, Oswald was the lone assassin. The commission stated that he shot a cheap rifle from the sixth floor of the Texas School Book Depository, the place of his employment. Three shots were fired, hitting three different people; John Conally, the governor of Texas; President Kennedy, and police officer James Tague. If Oswald had indeed shot this cheap rifle, there should have been a powder burn on his cheek. After Oswald was arrested, his cheek was examined, and no such burn was found. That alone should have supported his innocence. During the day of the assassination, there were two suspicious people at Dealeys Plaza, the area near the murder scene. Both men were standing on a curb, close to Kennedy when he was shot. One man was holding an umbrella, which was strange because it was a warm sunny day and no other bystander was holding one. The second man looked as if he was holding a radio. Both the Dallas Police and the Warren Commission failed to acknowledge these two men throughout the investigation. According to Ralph Schuster, the Zapruder film, clearly shows an open umbrella as the motorcade passed the Stemmons Freeway sign on Elm Street. In photographs taken minutes before and after the assassination, the Umbrella Man pumped his umbrella nearly two feet in the air and then lowered it again. While the Umbrella Man was pumping his umbrella, the man next to him began to raise his arms...

Public of international trade law Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 3000 words

Public of international trade law - Essay Example Despite the perceived freedom of global grade, there are still a lot of laws that needs to be complied with. These, of course, are governmental in proportion. These meant bulks of products that pass through territorial boundaries as well as impact on fuel consumption, transported delivery, as well as mass distribution and consumption of goods. The integration of economies also led for the need to streamline laws and regulations in international manner. The attempt to improve the international trade system for the last century was the establishment of the General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade or GATT. For without a governing body, conflicts will surely arise. The GATT, however, was seen to be problematic. It is why a new body was established, which was the World Trade Organization, and with it, a dispute settlement and resolution systems that established as well as oversee issues and challenges brought forth between aggrieved and respondent countries as well as their trading partners where inequality was perceived. This paper will try to discuss extensively the need for reform, if any that should be made on the WTO dispute settlement system. ... The functions of WTO includes administration of trade agreements, serve as a forum for trade negotiations, handle trade disputes, monitor national trade policies, assist and train developing countries, and cooperate with other international organizations2. It claims to have â€Å"helped to create a strong and prosperous international trading system, thereby contributing to unprecedented global economic growth,†3. Today, there are 153 country members and 117 of these are developing countries. It has a Secretariat with about 700 staff led by the WTO Director-General. The Director General stated that â€Å"decisions in the WTO are generally taken by consensus of the entire membership† although it has its own institutional body - the Ministerial Conference and the General Council which is the WTO’s highest-level decision-making body 4. By doing its work, the WTO proposed that national markets opened to â€Å"international trade, with justifiable exceptions or with a dequate flexibilities, will encourage and contribute to sustainable development, raise people's welfare, reduce poverty, and foster peace and stability. At the same time, such market opening must be accompanied by sound domestic and international policies that contribute to economic growth and development according to each member's needs and aspirations†5. Dispute Settlement The WTO resolves trade misunderstanding under the Dispute Settlement Understanding. The DSU facilitates smooth trade flows and member countries bring their cases to WTO once their rights under the agreements were violated. While decisions were made by so-called independent experts, these experts were appointed and their judgment is usually based on interpretations of the agreements

Feminism Article Analysis Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

Feminism Article Analysis - Essay Example Ann Tickner in her work â€Å"You Just Don’t Understand: Troubled Engagements Between Feminists and IR Theorists,† that is, the eradication and repudiation of gender inequality that traditionally characterized the relationship between man and woman. With it also is the breaking of the glass ceiling or the â€Å"objectification† of women either as a sexual subject or an entity that can be exploited or abused. I agree this has to be relegated to history and people should move forward with renewed vigour to pursue and work as equals to build a more harmonious, more productive and better society. Women, after all, compose a half of our population, which means half the talent that could make our lives better, and half the capacity to produce. Therefore, it is not only a matter of political propriety that women should be equal to men, but also as an economic and political imperative. This however is only limited to personal, economic and societal relations, and not to international relations. Thus, I disagree with Tickner’s approach of transcending the feminist perspective to international relations. Feminist theories and approaches just got it wrong in interpreting international relations in terms of the feminist approach. International relations cover a complex and wide array of interests that intersect with one another and require balancing, better judgement, relevance and efficacy. Resolving this complexity that characterizes international relations with the epistemological and ontological perspective of feminist body of knowledge is just too simplistic. For example, we can cite the Kantian tradition and solution as a workable approach to an economic problem such as the recent financial crisis that almost dragged the world into recession whose Kantian solution that have been adopted by many, such as Obama’s Stimulus Plan, and for most part it has succeeded in saving jobs and in general, the economy of the United States and most part of the

Nutritional Assessment Assignment Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

Nutritional Assessment - Assignment Example a measurement is important is that for one, we can track the growth of infants and children by measuring their weight to length, the circumference of their heads, and the length, height, and weight. In the case of infants and toddlers, length is used because they are not able to stand properly or at all. Nutritional assessments are measured on adults by using the body mass index, measuring their percentage of body fat, and measuring their hip to waist ratio. This type of measurement is useful in enabling us to determine whether or not patients are at risks for certain diseases (Advameg, Inc., 2010). An example of an anthropometric measurement study is a study done by Raja Chakraborty and Kausik Bose to determine the nutritional status of men of the Gumla District, where the tribal populations are very undernourished (Chakraborty, Bose, 2008). The object of this study was to determine the similarities in the effects that undernourishment has on health as well as the reason for its occurrence. In order for an intervention or a cure, anthropometric measurements must be taken as this gives an indication of the extent of the effects that certain types of nutrition have on our bodies as well as helps the observer to best determine what source of action would be best suited to the patient. This is the reason that observers must be trained to collect anthropometric measurements in studies of nutritional status. In order for us to properly assess a child and whether or not he has a Vitamin A deficiency, it is important that we know the signs. Knowing the signs will not only enable us to detect the Vitamin A deficiency itself, we will also be able to determine the source of the deficiency, such as liver disorder/disease or malabsorbtion syndrome. The most common signs and symptoms of a child suffering from a Vitamin A deficiency is night blindness which can later progress to permanent blindness as a result of retinal injury. Assessing the extent of the clinical signs

Promotional Strategies Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

Promotional Strategies - Essay Example Promotion of a product involves the achievement of two objectives, and that is to provide information of the product to the targeted market, and to effectively persuade the targeted market into purchasing the product. Advertising is extremely useful in reaching any message put to any targeted market, while its relative impact on persuading the targeted market into purchase is low. Yet, it does both, and this is true for any product and in any sector of industry making it the effective form of promotion for all products. The primary advantage of advertising is that it is the least expensive in terms of per individual cost and less time consuming in spreading consumer behavior oriented information on a product to any target market, when compared to personal selling. Such messages can be got across to the targeted markets through different forms of media and the Internet quickly, and at much lower costs than what it would take a team of sales representatives to achieve. The advent of the Internet has provided a means for advertisement at even lower costs than conventional advertisements through print and television media (1). Words and images used in advertisements can trigger consumer positive reactions in wide target markets, even spread across the globe at a relatively low cost, and in very quick time (2). The disadvantage of advertising lies in the impact that it can create in the target market. Therefore deliberate planning must go into the creation of an advertisement, with extreme care being taken in the words and images used. An advertisement is like an arrow. Once it is let loose it cannot be called back, and if the message it carries creates negative feelings of either the product or the business enterprise involved in it the consequences will be disastrous. This is particularly true when products are marketed globally, and advertisements used for their promotion. Care has to be taken see

BUL Case Study Assignment Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 250 words

BUL Case Study - Assignment Example Having disciplinary regulations in any business organization is crucial as it describes and dictates to its members how they ought to behave. According to the letter issued by FIFA to its members on the revision of article 55, there has been an increase in cases of discrimination and indiscipline which has prompted them to start taking the disciplinary code more seriously (Linsi). It is these regulations that make it possible to deal with disciplinary issues whenever they arise. Increased cases of offensive behavior by both the players and the fans is a reflection on how FIFA carries out its regulations. This is a mockery to FIFA. On the hand, it is simply not enough to have regulations and not follow them. The increased cases of discriminatory remarks and indiscipline among the players could have been avoided if FIFA had taken its own regulations more seriously. The recent FA suspension of Luis Suarez after making discriminatory remark against Patrice Evra should serve as an example to FIFA

Accounting 2 Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

Accounting 2 - Essay Example In the end we have tried to comment on the possible reasons behind the changes in these ratios. We have also compared these ratios with past years ratios to find out whether or not the company is on the right path. Based on these ratios we have tried to suggest what the company could do to improve its condition. Some of these ratios are Activity Ratios, Profitability Ratios and solvency ratios. These ratios represent a true picture of the company which solitary figures could not exhibit. In the end we have conclude our report with appendices and various interesting findings about the companies under analysis. Berklee Limited is one of the premier companies operating in Australia. The company was formed by Mr. Adrian Van Berkel in 1963. The company was an immediate success and it was converted into a limited company by 1966. Later, the company was converted into a Public Limited company in 1989 and provided secure investment opportunities to thousands of Australians. Since then, this group has never looked backed and is growing in strength every day. The Principal activities of this group include manufacturing of automotive mufflers and various kinds of exhausts. The company manufactures its products in a fully-automated plant located near Victoria. From this plant, the products are dispatched to the distributors upon completion. Berklee has a unique selling point as its products are sold throughout Australia. This is made possible by the use of its strong distribution network, which has an outreach in every singly city of Australia. 2001 – Present: Mr. Edward Van Berkel, with his dynamic leadership and far-sighted vision, diversified the operation of the company to tube-bending and other automotive products. Since his take over as the managing director, the company has also been managed to achieve ISO Quality Standards and other certificates. The

Promotional Strategies Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

Promotional Strategies - Essay Example Promotion of a product involves the achievement of two objectives, and that is to provide information of the product to the targeted market, and to effectively persuade the targeted market into purchasing the product. Advertising is extremely useful in reaching any message put to any targeted market, while its relative impact on persuading the targeted market into purchase is low. Yet, it does both, and this is true for any product and in any sector of industry making it the effective form of promotion for all products. The primary advantage of advertising is that it is the least expensive in terms of per individual cost and less time consuming in spreading consumer behavior oriented information on a product to any target market, when compared to personal selling. Such messages can be got across to the targeted markets through different forms of media and the Internet quickly, and at much lower costs than what it would take a team of sales representatives to achieve. The advent of the Internet has provided a means for advertisement at even lower costs than conventional advertisements through print and television media (1). Words and images used in advertisements can trigger consumer positive reactions in wide target markets, even spread across the globe at a relatively low cost, and in very quick time (2). The disadvantage of advertising lies in the impact that it can create in the target market. Therefore deliberate planning must go into the creation of an advertisement, with extreme care being taken in the words and images used. An advertisement is like an arrow. Once it is let loose it cannot be called back, and if the message it carries creates negative feelings of either the product or the business enterprise involved in it the consequences will be disastrous. This is particularly true when products are marketed globally, and advertisements used for their promotion. Care has to be taken see

Accounting 2 Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

Accounting 2 - Essay Example In the end we have tried to comment on the possible reasons behind the changes in these ratios. We have also compared these ratios with past years ratios to find out whether or not the company is on the right path. Based on these ratios we have tried to suggest what the company could do to improve its condition. Some of these ratios are Activity Ratios, Profitability Ratios and solvency ratios. These ratios represent a true picture of the company which solitary figures could not exhibit. In the end we have conclude our report with appendices and various interesting findings about the companies under analysis. Berklee Limited is one of the premier companies operating in Australia. The company was formed by Mr. Adrian Van Berkel in 1963. The company was an immediate success and it was converted into a limited company by 1966. Later, the company was converted into a Public Limited company in 1989 and provided secure investment opportunities to thousands of Australians. Since then, this group has never looked backed and is growing in strength every day. The Principal activities of this group include manufacturing of automotive mufflers and various kinds of exhausts. The company manufactures its products in a fully-automated plant located near Victoria. From this plant, the products are dispatched to the distributors upon completion. Berklee has a unique selling point as its products are sold throughout Australia. This is made possible by the use of its strong distribution network, which has an outreach in every singly city of Australia. 2001 – Present: Mr. Edward Van Berkel, with his dynamic leadership and far-sighted vision, diversified the operation of the company to tube-bending and other automotive products. Since his take over as the managing director, the company has also been managed to achieve ISO Quality Standards and other certificates. The

Porfirio Diaz’s leadership tactics Essay Example for Free

Porfirio Diaz’s leadership tactics Essay †¢ Diaz was able to manipulate other politicians as well as his surrounding leaders. He created great relationships with regional leaders, reminding them that the growth of Mexico’s economy would also create economic growth for them. [1] †¢ Diaz created peace among the Catholic Church supporters, and opponents. Diaz enforced new laws, reforming church privileges. [2] †¢ In order to boost the economy, Diaz looked to foreign investment. He gave tax breaks for international investors, used foreign capital to pay for infrastructure, and always encouraged trade with other countries (i. e Britain, United States, Germany, etc.). [3] †¢ To maintain political power and approval, Diaz regularly jailed those who spoke out against him or his policies, resulting in many editors and writers being imprisoned and opposing leaders â€Å"disappearing†. [4] Porfirio Diaz’s Presidential Terms †¢ Diaz served as president first in 1876, though the public realized his love of power, and elected a new president, Gonzalez, after Diaz’s first term. After a term of Gonzalez, Diaz then reclaimed presidency, and stayed in power from 1884 to 1910, a grand total of 30 years. [5] †¢ Diaz eventually lost power in 1911, after several public uproars and criticism’s about Diaz came forth, and the Maderistas took up arms against him. Soon, a revolution at the battle of Casas Grandes, took place, defeating Porfirio Diaz. [6] Juan Manuel de Rosas accomplishments †¢ Rosas walked into a politically unstable, Argentina. To fix this, Rosas believed in a greater amount of power for the governor. Through doing so, Rosas became a tyrant like leader, similar to Diaz. [7] †¢ During his reign, Rosas increased exported beef and hides, ended the ongoing civil wars, obtained much more land, and declined foreign debts. [8] Leadership Style of Rosas †¢ Rosas was extremely oppressive, not always being sympathetic or thoughtful, often showing no mercy to those whom he though betrayed him. [9] Analysis The Caudillos Juan Manuel de Rosas and Porfirio Diaz are two extremely powerful men in Latin American history, each changing different things about their country in different ways. However, one thing is consistent when analyzing both; they were masters of political power and maintained it better than most leaders. The rise and preservation of power does not come from simple charisma or character. Each leader devised strong strategies and processes, ensuring them the necessary support to rule a country for such an amount of time. After first being elected president in 1876, then losing his position to Gonzales, Diaz then reclaimed the presidency from 1184 to 1910, meaning he remained in power for a total of 30 years. [10] Diaz did this by manipulating others around him, including other authorities as well as the public. Those who did not agree with Diaz or spoke out were punished. Many were imprisoned or found disappearing[11]. Aside from the public, Diaz also took care of threatening opposing authorities by creating great relationships with regional leaders.[12] These relations, military power, and strive for strength created the everlasting regime of Porfirio Diaz. Like Diaz, Juan Manuel de Rosas grew to be extremely powerful during his country of Argentina’s, time of need. Again, being similar with Diaz, Rosas, while powerful, was also oppressive, as many Caudillos of the time soon became. Through a letter written by a citizen to Juan Manuel de Rosas, in which the man pleads for his daughter’s safety, Rosas is unmoved by the article and executes the daughter.[13] This is a prime example of the leader ship style of Rosa. Though, it does raise the question that if he was so oppressive and powerful, why was he in office for so long? When Rosas arrived in Argentina, political chaos was obvious. In order to ensure stability, Rosas implemented many changes in the government, including giving more power to the governor, which in turn, saved Rosas job for the future, allowing him to become a tyrant like leader.[14] Both of these Caudillos illustrate human’s crave for power, and the manipulation, deception, and devilish processes that can be used to maintain this power. We can see both of these men as great leaders, as they thoroughly accomplished what they decided was best. We can also see them as great lessons, teaching us of the dangers of leadership and the risks it often involves. Conclusion The view of past and present Caudillos will consistently change with the person the view is from. However, one thing is clear. Juan Manuel de Rosas and Porfirio Diaz were two Caudillos of political excellence, maintaining a long and influential regime. This was accomplished by both, through their personal triumphs over the previous government of their nation as well as a triumph over threatening authorities around and within the nation, such as Diaz regularly jailing those who spoke out against him or his policies. Rosas and Diaz both knew what they wanted and had valid processes in accomplishing this; though the moral values of their actions are up to discussion. This situation is common throughout history, including skilled leaders such as Hitler, Stalin, and Castro. Juan Manuel de Rosas and Porfirio Diaz display patterns of the past and expectations of the future.

Planning Theory in City Development

Planning Theory in City Development Abstract This paper examines the theories of rational planning, incremental planning, and planning as a political process. It compares these three influences of planning specifically to town planning. Furthermore, the importance of rational planning, incremental planning, and planning as a political process will be highlighted in the examination of a case study of the ADA Light Rail Planning Project. Conclusions will be made as to the role these theories, in combination with politics, play in city planning. Introduction Theory is a foundational part of knowledge because it describes how a particular field has been established and has evolved over time. Theory has been defined as a well-substantiated explanation of some aspect of the natural world; an organized system of accepted knowledge that applies in a variety of circumstances to explain a specific set of phenomena (Wordnet, 2009). Based on this and other definitions, theory can be seen as a big umbrella that includes concepts, propositions, causes, explanations, definitions, and values. Theories have been presented in regards to planning. These theories have been offered for planners to use as references. They provide guidelines for ways in which to go about planning and are used by many planners including town planners. Each planner holds a different view on the planning theories which have already been presented, and adjustments or suggestions are always made to well-known theories. Arguments are constantly being made as to which theory is better, and what theory is best used for town planning. Every planning agency is different and may use different theories to back up their ways of doing business. Study Purpose In this study, the theories of rational planning, incremental planning, and planning as a political process will be presented, especially in regards to city planning. These theories will be compared to each other and their significance to the ADA Light Rail Planning Project will be examined. It will be argued that the Light Rail Planning Project was, initially, a rational planning process but took a turn to incremental planning with the influence of politicization. It will also be argued that rational planning and incremental planning are insufficient in themselves as methods to fully approach town planning as politicization plays a larger role. Results Rational Planning Theory Rational planning theory was first conceptualized as a specific form of planning in the Chicago School in the 1940s and 1950s. This was a program offered at the University of Chicago that came about after the Great Depression and WWII with the aim to better plan the economy. This program, which lasted only nine years, was enormously influential in setting the direction of planning theory. Rational planning was introduced to city planning in the 1960s. The incorporation into town planning came about due to a transition in thought: Town development was now regarded as a science rather than an art (Allmendinger, 2009). Despite its critics, rational planning has remained the most widely used planning theory for approximately 50 years. It remains a major foundation of planning school curricula, and has spawned the primary language planners use in methodological discussion (Baum, 1996; Dalton, 1986). Rational planning is a procedural theory that focuses on the process of planning rather than on an object or end goal (Faludi, 1973). According to Nigel Taylor, the author of Urban Planning Theory Since 1945, rational planning is the best method, or process, of doing planning, (1998, p. 66) He goes on to say that a rational decision is one that has persuasive reasoning (reasons can be persuasive if they are based on factual knowledge e.g., the knowledge has been gained based on a valid study). He argues that not every reason is persuasive; however, rational planning is designed to produce reasons that are persuasive. Taylor presented the fact that reasons can sometimes be persuasive for one group and not another. If reasons are persuasive based on individual values or group values, they are not necessarily persuasive in terms of science or for an entire community. This draws the conclusion that rational planning does not provide straight-forward formulaic answers to any given questio n. However, the rational process of planning does try to achieve unbiased, persuasive reasoning for any given problem (Taylor, 1998). Since societies are made up of many people and all with different views, it is logical to think that decisions affecting large groups of people should be unbiased. Therefore, according to Karl Mannheim, a planner reflecting the ideals of social historian and economist Max Weber, planning should be objective (Allmendinger, 2009). This can be achieved by thinking rationally and focusing on the best method for reaching a decision. Rationalists are seen as those who have logical reasons for their views or decisions based on facts rather than emotions or values (ibid). It only makes sense that if decision-makers seek a rational decision they should follow a process that is rational. To successfully achieve rational planning, there are steps that must be followed (Taylor, 1998). First off, a problem must be defined. Second, there needs to be identification of alternative options to solve this problem. Third, there must be detailed evaluation of each alternative. The fourth step is to implement the best alternative, and the fifth step is to monitor the effects of the chosen alternative. Rational planning does not end with the fifth step. Rational planning takes into consideration new problems arising or the fact that the initial problem or goal was not actually reached with the pre-determined best alternative. Therefore, rational planning may loop back to any step at any time as it is a continuous process (ibid). Rational planning is systematic by nature. Just as rational planning does not have any criteria for concluding whether reasoning is persuasive or not in terms of the whole, the theory of rational planning is not perfect in regards to city planning. Rational planning was designed as a scientific way to approach planning (Faludi, 1973). The problem is that city planning is not a natural science. Town planning is a social problem; social issues are never solved but only resolved time and time again. There isnt an exact formula to answer the problems of town planning. Furthermore, social problems have no clear-cut indication of when adequate understanding has been reached since understanding for a social problem has no exact scientific criteria to be judged by. This indicates that town planners can always try to do better, as there is no clear-cut stopping point for any planning process (Rittel Webber, 1973, p.8). Rational vs. Disjointed-incrementalist Planning Charles Lindblom, a well-known critic of rational planning theory, disagrees with radical decision-making and believes that any decision made should be closely related to the policies that are currently in place. He proposed a theory of planning referred to as disjointed-incrementalism. Lindblom argues that disjointed-incremental planning is best for real-world situations (Allmendinger, 2009). He proposed some simple steps for incremental planning: Limit the analysis of alternatives to a few familiar options, focus on the problems rather than end-goals, and learn through trial and error (ibid). Lindblom wants to keep planning and implementation simple: An easy goal is established, and the alternatives considered are based on past experiences and values (Lindblom, 1959). Lindblom has one major criticism of rational planning. According to Lindblom, planning cannot be rational if it is not comprehensive, and planning cannot be comprehensive because planners lack the ability to fully absorb all information related to the process (Lindblom, 1959). At first, many may agree that if rational planning is not fully comprehensive then it cannot be rational. However, Nigel Taylor offers an example to argue differently. He depicts a story of a man with a gun at his head. This situation does not allow ample time to consider all options and therefore cannot be comprehensive. Yet, the man quickly goes over all options readily available to him and makes the best decision he can with that knowledge. Under the circumstances, that decision is still considered rational (1998). A rational decision can be made after considering all alternatives available to the planner at the time (Banfield Meyerson, 1955 cited by Allmendinger, 2009). What is learned from this is that a plan or a process can be rational without being comprehensive. Faludi (1973) also offers criticism of Lindbloms theory. He criticizes the fact that incrementalism only offers limited alternatives for any given issue. Faludi says that incrementalism goes against making rational choices that affect a large number of people such as a community. He also disapproves of the fact that Lindblom proposes to make plans that are satisfying to one group of people that have the most influence in the community whether or not they are the majority (ibid). Like rational planning, incrementalism still poses problems in relation to city planning. A key aspect to incrementalism is learning through trial and error. However, in town planning, there isnt an easy way to learn through trial-and-error. Its not easy to implement a highway and then take it out if it proves to be an insufficient response to the issue. Furthermore, if putting in a highway was the chosen alternative for an issue, and it did not resolve that issue, a new complication is created (Rittel Webber, 1973). Each and every public policy is unique in and of itself. It may be possible to take other towns and policies for example, but each problem will be different; therefore, each implementation will result in a different scenario. What works for one town may not work for another. It seems as if this trial-and-error suggestion does not entirely work for city planning; thus, the theory of incrementalism does not fully encompass all issues related to town planning. There is a link between rational planning and incremental planning. Faludi proposes that planning is usually somewhere between disjointed-incrementalist and rational-comprehensive. Planning agencies move more towards rational comprehensiveness but of course can never be fully comprehensive, only rational at best. Therefore the plan is somewhat still incremental and lies between the two extremes (Faludi, 1973). Like the man with a gun at his head, in some situations it is rational to quickly go over alternatives to any issue. At times, this may even be disjointed or incremental. Therefore, the suggestion that rational planning and incremental planning are completely different theories of planning is not entirely accurate. It is possible to have a combination of both theories in one plan (Taylor, 1998). Rational and Incremental Planning vs. Planning as a Political Process Thus far, city planning has been analyzed in comparison to the theories of rational planning and incrementalism. It seems these two theories lack a huge component for town planning: Politicization. However, city planning being considered political is not new (Taylor, 1998). The main problem with the rational planning theory in regards to town planning is the disregard in reference to politicization (ibid). Incrementalists acknowledge some of the roles politics play in city planning, but it seems as if their views are a little nave when it comes to the balance of power affecting this (Allmendinger, 2009). When it comes to town planning, decision-making is affected more by the power of politics rather than by rationality or even incrementalism. This is largely to do with the amount of people city planning affects and the different values or interests these people have. [S]ince town planning action can significantly affect the lives of large numbers of people, and since different individuals and groups may hold different views about how the environment should be planned, based on different values and interests, it is therefore also a political activity. The planning theorists in the 1960s who saw planning as a science therefore misconceived the very activity they were seeking to describe (Taylor, 1998, p. 83). It is not only the number of people affected but the power of certain groups and their political influence which plays into the decisions made, especially in city planning. Norton Long, an American planning theorist, words it quite well: The question is not whether planning will reflect politics but whose politics it will reflect. What values and whose values will planners seek to implement?[P]lans are in reality political programs. In the broadest sense they represent political philosophies, ways of implementing differing conceptions of the good life. (1959, p.168). Charles Hoch, an experienced author on the subject of planning theory, agrees with this. He says that the complexity of city planning is due to the social and environmental factors and is greatly determined by the players involved. Hoch says that the players motives always change, and that further complicates the politics of city planning (2009). In fact, public policy is hardly ever implemented due to planning authority alone; it relies on other actors to support the decision as well. Of course, these actors dont always hold the same position as the planners or policy-makers (Pressman Wildavsky, 1973 cited by Taylor, 1998). Therefore, the assumption can be made that social problems like city planning are political in nature, not scientific (Taylor, 1998). Rational planning and incremental planning are inadequate in themselves to successfully complete a town planning project all the way through implementation. They are hindered by political influence as well as ethical issues (Guba Lincoln, 1989 cited by Hostovsky, 2005). Using rational planning for public policy creates deceptive expectations for what knowledge is really required to turn those plans into action; it doesnt recognize politicization, the largest factor in implementation (Hoch, 2009). However, incrementalists hold belief in pluralism: The power of putting initiatives into motion does not necessarily come from the person in the highest ranking position but rather it is affected by groups who hold special interest and power (Merelman, 2004). They do acknowledge some of the roles politics play in planning. They realize that government doesnt necessarily mean those directly in position but rather government is a collection of groups that have their own special interests (Faludi, 1973). It seems as if incrementalism is a step closer to embracing the full scope of city planning than rational planning due to this acknowledgement. With politicization playing such a large role in town planning, theorists have suggested that planners stop being completely objective and become more involved with the entire process (Long, 1959). Planners should be technical in the formulation of plans, but should be advocates for the alternative deemed as the best option. City planning calls for debate of many social and political issues and should be kept in view of the public (Davidoff Reiner, 1962 cited by Taylor, 1998). Taylor says that in order for a plan to be effectively implemented, planners need to identify lead actors that play a role in the implementation and persuade them to fulfill the objectives of the planning authority (1998). It seems planners can no longer rest in the assurance that their plan was carefully carried out. They now have to worry about other contributing factors outside of planning to ensure implementation. Rational planners and decision-makers hope that their government will do what is in the best interest of the community (Faludi, 1973), but that is not always the case. In comparison, it seems that incrementalists realize their plans wont be implemented if they dont have the support of actors who have strong political power, so they gear their plans towards pleasing these players. They are not advocates for a plan they think is best, but rather they try to make their plans to please those in power. This leads to the issue of what political involvement should imply. In a society, especially a democratic one, something of political nature should imply the participation of the public (Taylor, 1998). It makes sense that those most affected by any town plan should have a say in the decision-making. Based on these three aspects of planning theory, it seems that city planning should aim to be somewhere between incremental and rational while considering input from the public and keeping their best interest in mind. Planning should be objective and unbiased but keep in mind the limitations that plans may face at the implementation phase in regards to politicization and special interest groups that hold lots of power (ibid). If a plan goes against the desires of those in power, planners should be advocates for what they think is best for the community while keeping in mind that they cant impose their ideas of what is right or wrong (ibid.). Planning Theory Applied to Case Study Alrriyadh Development Authority Project Background In the summer of 2002, a team was selected by the Transportation Planning Unit at Alrriyadh Development Authority (ADA) to work on a project to find the best solution to resolving the congestion problem in Riyadh (I was part of this team). The traffic congestion posed destruction of Riyadhs living system. Riyadh is the capital city of Saudi Arabia and has over 5 million residents. It doubles in size every ten years and is the fastest growing capital worldwide. It is forecasted there would be 15 million car trips a day by 2021 in Riyadh (City without Limits, 2002). After examining alternatives, which will be elaborated on below, the planning authority dubbed the project: Light Rail Planning Project. The following is an examination of the Light Rail Project in reference to rational and incremental planning as well as planning as a political process. The Planning Theory of the Light Rail Planning Project The ADA relies on rational planning for the majority of its projects. In reference to the Light Rail Planning Project, the ADA made sure the team was fully knowledgeable in rational planning. This was accomplished by bringing a professor of technical planning from Berkeley, California to give training workshops for five months. This allowed the members to be knowledgeable in rational planning in direct regards to city planning. It seems as if the ADA followed the rational process of planning in the first few steps of planning. They first identified the problem, which was the congestion of Saudi Arabias capital city, Riyadh. Following the identification of the problem, the team came up with alternatives to the problem. The alternatives considered were widening some main roads, creating an effective public transportation system with buses, and installing a light rail system. These are not all options that could have been considered, but they were pre-determined to be the best alternatives collectively. This form of rational planning is not comprehensive but still seems to be rational as it made use of the best available options available to them (Banfield Meyerson, 1955 cited by Allmendinger, 2009). This step also seems to be incremental as there were only a few alternatives chosen. However, the alternative for the light rail system was not closely related to the current system, and therefore seems to be bas ed on more rational thought than incremental as Lindblom (1959) would not suggest an alternative that required much deviation from the current system. In reference to these issues, it seems that this step was somewhere between rational and incremental as Faludi (1973) pointed out most plans are. The third step in the rational planning process is to evaluate alternatives against each other. To make sure this and the following steps were accurate, multiple resources were used including inviting an expert from GTZ, a big consultation company in Germany, to help with developing alternatives and analyzing them. The team was also sent to Berkeley, University of California to spend five months learning technical skills, information analysis and how to make alternative planning evaluations. Using the skills learned from Berkely and GTZ, alternatives were evaluated in detail. Planners went to the residents of Riyadh and asked if they would use the new alternatives. In fact, this is the first planning project in Riyadh that included input from women. This input was of major importance as the women in Riyadh make up the majority of the population. In regards to the light rail system, if women would not use it then it would surely fail. In the end, the women reported that they would use the light rail system if it was implemented. After many more studies and evaluation, the light rail system turned out to be the best alternative environmentally, socially, and economically. This showed the light rail system to be the best alternative by far as there were only those three categories to be weighed. In the evaluation step of ADAs traffic congestion project, it seems that the process of rational planning was completed. Then again, evaluating alternatives is also suggested as part of incremental planning, so this step shares a little of each theory. However, this phase proved to be more comprehensive than any other step. In considering each alternative, it seems that the ADA planners made every effort in evaluating every aspect. They even interviewed women, which had never before been done in Riyadh. On the other hand, this step did not take into consideration any political views that would influence the implementation of the chosen alternative. To be truly comprehensive, all views would have to be taken into consideration as part of fully understanding the issue. Nevertheless, planning theorists have constantly pointed out the rational planners lack of consideration towards politicization. Consequently, it seems that this step of planning was somewhere in between rational-compreh ensive and incremental. Strictly incremental planning would have acknowledged political actors in the implementation of the light rail system and probably would have not considered that option from the beginning. Hypothetically, if it had, it would have been eliminated after considering the desires of the groups in power of the city of Riyadh. Before the fourth step, implementation of the light rail system, was undertaken, the planning team was sent to various workshops with road authorities, engineers, and city planners from all over the world. They were taught operation management, maintenance, and how to run a light rail system in these workshops. They were also sent to a total of eight cities and spent two weeks in each city in order to evaluate their light rail systems. These cities were Stockholm, Sweden; Toronto, Canada; Tokyo, Japan; Los Angeles, California; New York City, New York; Paris, France; Berlin, Germany; and Sydney, Australia. Various observations were made in each city, such as Sweden had a very organized and well-planned light rail system, and Tokyo had amazing light rail management. All considerations were taken into account as they prepared the proposal to the CEO of ADA. They had plans to implement and follow through with evaluation afterwards. With all the planning and extensive research that went into the Alrriyadh Development Authoritys project of the light rail system, it is clear that a rational process of planning was being attempted. The team had planned to complete the five steps of rational planning from the beginning of the project. The first three steps were followed to the best of their abilities, although there is a combination of rational and incremental planning. The planning was objective due to the fact that it would affect a large group of people as suggested by Karl Mannheim (the planners even sought advice from women) (Taylor, 1998). It was procedural as Faludi (1973) says planning should be (following pre-determined steps for each phase of planning), and it produced persuasive reasons as they were based on a valid study as suggested by Nigel Taylor (experts allowed the team to conduct valid studies) (1998). When the team presented their findings to the CEO of ADA, he told them to stop the planning after already completing seven years of the process. He admitted to them that he was convinced that the light rail system was the best solution. However, he said there was something behind the scenes that played a part. The CEO proposed to widen some main roads, which he claimed was an incremental approach to planning. Widening the roads is a more incremental approach in this situation and seems to be less rational as the facts from the study were mostly ignored. This alternative also appears incremental as the CEO suggests there is influence behind the scenes that has contributed to his decision. There is the suggestion that politics influenced the CEOs ultimate decision to widen the road. Speculations can be made that the CEO was afraid to lose his job if the project failed at the cost of $9billion when the council of ministers were the ones allocating the money for the project. He may have been concerned that the council would disprove of his decision. There is also the assumption that the CEO was under pressure from the religious leaders in Riyadh who did not agree with mixing men and women, which would happen with the completion of the light rail system. Furthermore, it seems likely that the CEO was influenced by the oil companies as they would not want people to stop driving cars at the risk of oil prices dropping. All of these reasons involve powerful parties that hold political interest in public policy. These groups have tremendous influence in Riyadh, and it is speculated that their influence contributed to the incremental switch in planning during the Light Rail Planning Project. After the CEO made his decision to widen the roads, the team members became upset. They realized that there was political influence involved. They very strongly wanted the light rail system implemented as they worked seven years on rational planning to make sure it was the best alternative. At this point, some of the team members decided to take some action to persuade the CEO that implementing the light rail system would be the best alternative. They became advocates for their cause as some theorists suggest planners should do (Long, 1959). With some convincing, the CEO agreed to leave space for the light rail system and reconsider it in 2020. This step was much more incremental as it would give time to evaluate the effect of widening the roads on Riyadh. Furthermore, having already made the space to put the light rail system in, if the CEO agreed to implement it in 2020, it would not be too far from the current system. This step also proved to be political as the team members devia ted from their plan to speak out about their proposed resolution. They realized that simply presenting a rational plan would not necessarily grant them the resolution they prescribed. Here it seems that the rational planning led them to consider incremental planning after addressing the politicization of the issue. With this huge political influence, the issue of public participation arises. If a social issue is to be resolved, it would make sense for those affected by this matter to play a part in the decision-making. In the case of the Light Rail Planning Project, city members did contribute to the study. They reported that they would be happy with the light rail system and would make use of it. However, their opinions were disregarded by the CEO as he was concerned with something other than the majority of the public. As Sherry Arnstein wrote in an article, participation without redistribution of power is an empty and frustrating process for the powerless. It allows the power-holders to claim that all sides were considered, but makes it possible for only some of those sides to benefit, (1969, p. 216). With the decision to widen the roads, it is not completely clear who benefitted most, although there are the possibilities of the oil companies, the religious leaders, and the CEO himself. Mayb e these parties did not necessarily benefit from the widening of the roads, but they likely didnt lose anything as the implementation of the light rail system implies they would have. The planners tried to come up with an alternative that would best solve the traffic congestion in Riyadh and benefit the public, but they were unable to complete their process as they did not anticipate the power of politics in their planning. The powerless that Arnstein refers to in her article seem to be the planners as well as the majority of residents in Riyadh in this particular plan. Despite majority input and studies that showed the light rail system was the best solution environmentally, economically and socially, it was not implemented. However, when the planners finally became advocates for their cause and appealed to the nature of politics while abandoning simple rational planning, they seemed to make some progress. This shows how seemingly ineffective rational planning theory is singularly in regards to city planning. It appears that rational planning would only be effective in regards to public policy if it acquired use of other theories as well as politicization. Lessons Learned In examining this case study, it appears that plans are often made but the deciders dont necessarily take actions that reflect those proposed by the plan (Taylor, 1998). Rationalists cannot assume that their plans will be implemented if they have not put thought into the support from other key players; implementation of town plans often requires the support and cooperation from a group that holds power in the community. Plans can be aborted or changed if there is no support from those who hold political power (ibid.). Incrementalists have a better understanding of town planning. The proposals of incrementalism suggest better application for real-world situations as they acknowledge the troubles faced during implementation. More specifically, incrementalists recognize that certain groups hold political interest in city planning, and they do not ignore this (ibid). Based on this case study and professional planning theorists knowledge, a connection between rational planning, incrementa l planning, and politics as a process of planning is seen in city planning. Conclusion From the examination of rational planning, incremental planning, and planning as a political process, the Light Rail Planning Project was able to be analyzed against these theories. Multiple planning theorists have suggested that rational and incremental planning are not completely separate theories. They suggest that the theories often intertwine in town planning. As seen from the case study of the ADA Light Rail Planning Project, it seems these theorists were correct. City planning is a complicated process as it is based around social issues rather than completely scientific ones. To claim that a planning process must be either completely incremental or rational does not seem to be accurate against these findings. Furthermore, in ignoring the role of politicization in town planning, it will likely lead to the unsuccessful implementation of plans. As planning theorists and this case study propose, politics play a major role in city planning. The conclusion can be made that town plan ning encompasses many planning theories, and politics have an important part to play in the completion of any town plan regardless of the planning process. References: Allmendinger, P. ( 2009). Planning Theory. Palgrave Macmillan. Arns